By Haroon Ahmed
Western ideology and civilization have undoubtedly been influenced by Greek philosophy, and at the helm of these influencers stands Plato. Aside from founding the first institution of higher learning in Western Civilization, his utopian ideas have had an influence on several notable leaders and empires throughout history, and still have an impact on the modern day. Most notably, his philosophies have influenced Christian theology throughout history, and his utopian ideals have influenced modern day communism and totalitarianism. Plato’s work, Republic, describes what he believes would be an ideal society; but one which is ultimately unattainable and which stands in stark contrast with modern day democracy.
Aristotle was arguable the most well-known student of Plato, with his own philosophical values having at least the same influence as Plato’s . As Plato’s student, he was undeniably influenced by Plato’s philosophy. However, they did not always agree, and their philosophies on many matters were actually very different. For example, Plato cared more about reasoning and mental experiments, while Aristotle depended on physical experience and observation. Furthermore, Plato believed that if one is taught “good vs. bad” or “wrong vs. right”, one will naturally choose what is right (1). Aristotle rather believed that one has to make an intentional action to do the right thing, and that wisdom is a trait acquired only through effort. Their differing philosophies have sparked debates throughout history. As Arthur Herman states, “in the Middle Ages, it not only shaped the contrasting world views of St. Augustine and St. Thomas
Aquinas, but pervaded the works of the greatest mind of the age, from Peter Abelard and Abbot Suger to William of Ockham, and dictated the terms of the first cultural interface between Christianity and Islam” (2).
Platonism also influenced and shaped Christian theology within Western civilization. The parallels between Plato’s philosophy and Christian theology are undeniable. First of all, Plato expanded on the ideas of his teacher, Socrates, who taught that the psychology of a person was far more important than their physicality, as one’s morals and intellect were contained within their psychological being. As Herman further explains, “thanks to Plato, Socrates’s notion of the individual rational soul would become an integral part of Western thinking for the next two thousand years” (3). This idea of a rational soul has confounded people of every field, be it academic, scientific, religious, or otherwise; they all seek to understand the mystery of the unexplainable self. Christianity was influenced by this idea of a rational soul, as author Miles Hollingworth explains, “It is here, on this question of a supernatural and world-defying morality, that Christianity and Platonism are traditionally said to converge. Impulses that are located in the conscience allow us to judge behavior. From this, and by declension, we construct the schemes of the ‘good life’ – the positive alternatives to the status quo” (4).
Furthermore, the modern Christian idea of heaven is actually a very Platonic ideal5. Plato describes “heaven” as a world completely different from this one, and one in which humans lose their body and exist simply as spirits. Christianity originally did not have this belief; rather heaven was believed to be a world very similar to this one, but of greater beauty and purity, and one in which people are resurrected in their bodily form. However, modern Christian descriptions of heaven prescribe to a very Platonic description, in which human beings leave behind this world and their body when they die and enter a new realm of light. This is interesting because the afterlife is a central, undeniable part of most religions, and that Platonic thought had an impact on such a vital concept in Christianity further shows it held undeniable influence.
Augustine was perhaps the most prominent Christian theologian to be influenced by Plato. When Plato described the ultimate “Good” in Republic, Augustine applied this to the interpretation of God as being all good and truthful. Furthermore, Augustine believed that Christianity’s faith and Plato’s reasoning could coincide, and that the existence of God could be proved through the philosophy of reason as well. “Saint Augustine reported that he found the doctrine of the Trinity proposed in the writings of the Platonists and thus provided the medieval theologians with a setting for considering the problem of rational knowledge of the Trinity”6. As such, Augustine was the first Christian to conceptualize the connection between faith and reason because of Plato.
The Renaissance of the 14th to 17th centuries saw a renewed interest in Greek philosophy. Plato’s Republic was the premier work on political theory, and was debated and discussed for centuries within political arenas, renewed again during the Renaissance. Republic discusses the meaning of justice, wisdom, and morality; all popular subjects during the Renaissance. However, Plato’s works were not taken literally, and were rather taken subjectively, leading to further discussion on various topics. The revival of Greek philosophy further brought to debate the differences between Plato and Aristotle (8).
One of the most apparent examples of the influence of Plato’s utopia in the modern age can be seen in communist states such as North Korea and the former Soviet Union. Plato’s Republic describes what he believed was a perfect society, and was one of complete order and control. For one, Plato’s utopia relies heavily on censorship, as do communist states, which place limitations on books, music, and other entertainment9. The purpose of such censorship is to diminish a citizen’s exposure to any material which might make them deviate from their state’s role for them and the systematic order. Such societies do not have space for anybody “bad”, and as such only allow their citizens to be exposed to that which will make them obedient, “good” citizens. In such systems there is no freedom of thought, speech, or action. A person is believed to belong to the society itself, and not exist as an individual at all.
However, further issues arise with this utopian idea when it is applied to large societies. Plato’s utopia was clearly influenced by his own circumstances, namely his life in a small state with a small population. As Erik Van Ree explains of Plato’s utopia, “his republic exemplifies the degree to which utopianism tends to be contextually defined by existing state structures. The philosopher warned that the ideal state must not be allowed to grow beyond the limits where ‘unity’ among the populace would be endangered” (10). Thus, the larger a state grows, the harder it is to maintain absolute control, and ultimately it will collapse. Furthermore, as there is no freedom of thought in such a system, or room for change, it is intrinsically difficult to maintain a leadership. As Popper explains of this flaw, “…this lead to difficulties which must prove insurmountable for any kind of authoritarianism. The authoritarian will select in general those who obey, who believe, who respond to his influence. But in doing so, he selects mediocrities” (11). As such, the more that individual qualities are repressed, the less able a society is to produce leaders with the strong characteristics needed to maintain order.
In conclusion, Plato has been a philosopher of undeniable influence in both the medieval and modern world. Republic described a society which communism has sought to emulate, whether directly or indirectly, through totalitarian control of its citizens. However, such a utopia is impossible to attain and sustain because it does not take into account an ever expanding society. Rather, it is Christianity which has witnessed the most lasting influence of Platonism, which was responsible for the rationalization of God within Christian theology and the connection between faith and reason.
References
(2) Herman, Arthur. The Cave and the Light: Plato Versus Aristotle, and the Struggle for the Soul of Western Civilization. New York: Random House Trade Paperbacks, 2014. (page numbers not available on online resource).
(3) Herman.
(4) Hollingworth, Miles. Saint Augustine of Hippo: An Intellectual Biography. Oxford University Press, 2013. pg. 15
(5) Buron, Nell. “The Origins of Heaven and Hell”. https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/hide and-seek/201206/the-origins-heaven-and-hell
(6) Henle, R.J. Saint Thomas and Platonism. Springer Science & Business Media, 1970. pg. 407
(7) Hoitenga, Dewey J. Faith and Reason from Plato to Plantinga: An Introduction to Reformed Epistemology. SUNY Press, 1991. pg. 57
(8) “Renaissance Philosophy” http://www.iep.utm.edu/renaissa/#H3
(9) Russell, Bertrand. History of Western Philosophy. New York: Simon and Schuster. pg. 110
(10) Ree, Erik V. Boundaries of Utopia – Imagining Communism from Plato to Stalin. Routledge, 2015. pg. 18
(11) Popper, Karl. The Open Society and Its Enemies. Princeton University Press, 2013. pg. 118 5
