Shah Waliullah and His Contributions to Islamic Knowledge and Pedagogy

A brief introduction to Shah Waliullah by Haroon Ahmed

Early Life and Background (1114-1143 AH/1703-1762CE):

Shah Waliullah Dehlawi (may Allah be pleased with him), born in 1114 AH (1703 CE) in Phulat, near Muzaffarnagar in Uttar Pradesh, India, came from a distinguished family of the Mughal elite. His grandfather, Shaykh Wajih al-Din, served as a military officer under emperors Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb, known not only for his bravery but also for his piety. Shah Waliullah’s father, Shah Abd al-Rahim, distanced himself from the military and focused on Islamic sciences, contributing to the compilation of al-Fatawa al-Alamgiriyyah, a key legal code under Aurangzeb’s reign.

Some historians say his lineage traces back to Amir al-Mu’minin Umar ibn al-Khattab (may Allah be pleased with him). Shah Waliullah mentioned that his thirteenth grandfather, named Shams al-Din, came to India at the beginning of the Islamic conquest, settled there, established a school, and assumed the position of mufti. This position has been inherited by his descendant’s generation after generation, indicating that they were a family of knowledge and leaders of guidance.

Early Education and Career:

Shah Waliullah received his early education at al-Madrasah al-Rahimiyyah, founded by his father. By the age of fourteen, he had memorized the Quran and gained proficiency in Arabic and Persian. At fifteen, he was initiated into the Naqshbandi Order. Following his father’s death in 1131 AH (1719 CE), Wali Allah assumed the position of headmaster at the family’s Madrasah-i Rahimiyah, a renowned Islamic seminary in Delhi during his time.

Studies in the Hejaz:

In 1731 CE, Shah Waliullah traveled to the Hejaz for hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca), after which he remained in Mecca and Medina, for about fourteen months, to study under renowned Hadith masters and broaden his intellectual horizons. He studied under scholars like Shaykh Abu Tahir al-Kurdi and Shaykh Taj al-Din al-Qala’i. He obtained ijazahs in the six classical collections of Hadith as well as the Muwatta’ of Imam Malik.

During this time, he saw the forty-seven spiritual visions which form the subject matter of his famous mystical work Fuyud al-haramayn (Emanations or Spiritual Visions of Mecca and Medina) notable entries include visions of Imam Hassan and Imam Hussain giving him a pen symbolizing his inheritance of the Prophet’s knowledge. After making his second hajj, Shah Wali Allah returned home to Delhi in 1144 AH (1732 CE). All but one or two of his works were produced during his later years.

Intellectual and Metaphysical Contributions:

Shah Waliullah’s intellectual legacy is marked by his prolific writings in Arabic and Persian, comprising between fifty to seventy works. His writings span various disciplines, including theology, mysticism, metaphysics, and Quranic exegesis, reflecting his deep engagement with Islamic thought and his effort to synthesize diverse intellectual traditions.

Key Works:

• Hujjat Allah al-Bāligha (The Profound Evidence of Allah): This monumental work addresses metaphysical issues, theological doctrines, and practical aspects of Islamic law and ethics. It demonstrates Shah Waliullah’s systematic approach to integrating Islamic teachings with rational inquiry.
• Fath ar-Rahman (Translation of the Quran): Shah Waliullah’s translation of the Qur’an into Persian, known as “Fath ar-Rahman,” was a groundbreaking effort to make the Qur’an accessible to non-Arabic speaking Muslims in the Indian subcontinent. This was one of the earliest translations of the Qur’an into a non-Arabic language.
• Al-Khayr al-kathir (The Abundant Good): Explores the nature of existence (wujud), epistemology, and the relationship between God and the created universe. It emphasizes the unity of knowledge and religious experience.
• al-Tafhīmāt al-Ilāhiyyah (Divinely Inspired Insights): Offers insights into Islamic mysticism (Sufism) and the inner dimensions of human spirituality. It includes Shah Waliullah’s mystical experiences and interpretations of spiritual states.
• Al-Budur al-bazigha (The Full Moons Rising in Splendour): Discusses the unity of God, the purpose of human existence, and the evolution of religious laws. It reflects Shah Waliullah’s philosophical inquiries into the nature of divine attributes and human responsibilities.
• Izalat al-Khifa’ ‘an Khilafat al-Khulafa’ (Removing the Uncertainty about the Caliphate of the Caliphs): Addresses the concept of caliphate and leadership in Islam. In this book, he delves into the historical, theological, and political aspects of the caliphate, discussing the roles and responsibilities of caliphs and leaders in the Muslim community. The book aims to clarify misconceptions and provide a comprehensive understanding of Islamic governance based on the principles derived from the Qur’an and Hadith.
• Sharh Hizb al-Bahr (Commentary on the Litany of the Sea): Provides an extensive exegesis on Abu al-Hasan al-Shadhili’s well-known supplication, delving into its linguistic details, spiritual significances, and practical applications. Shah Waliullah emphasizes the benefits of regular recitation for spiritual fortification and purification, along with guidance on proper recitation etiquette and intentions. This work showcases his profound grasp of Sufi metaphysics and has played a crucial role in sustaining and spreading Sufi spiritual traditions, particularly in the Indian subcontinent.
• Al-Fauz al-Kabir fi Usul al-Tafsir (The Great Success in the Principles of Quranic Commentary): This is a comprehensive text that outlines the foundational principles of tafsir (Quranic exegesis) according to Shah Waliullah. It covers various aspects of understanding the Qur’an, including linguistic, theological, and contextual considerations. The book serves as a guide for scholars and students of the Qur’an to approach its interpretation systematically and accurately.

Pedagogical Reforms:

Dars-e-Nizami System: Shah Waliullah was educated under the Dars-e-Nizami system, a well-established curriculum in Delhi designed to produce professionals for the Mughal administration. This system emphasized a diverse range of knowledge, including:

• Logic (Mantiq)
• Rhetoric (Balagha)
• Philosophy (Falsafa)
• Theology (Kalam)

Key texts within this curriculum included:

• Hidayah: A seminal text on Hanafi law.
• Jalalayn: A tafsir (commentary) on the Qur’an.
• Mishkat al-Masabih: A comprehensive hadith collection.
• Sharh al-Aqa’id: A text on Islamic theology.

Shah Waliullah made a significant addition to this curriculum by incorporating the study of the six classical collections of Hadith, known as Sihah Sitta, as well as the Muwatta’ of Imam Malik. His intention behind this inclusion was to ensure that the ulema (Islamic scholars) maintained a direct spiritual and scholarly link to the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH).

This connection brought in the ruhāni (spiritual) dimension to the ilmī (knowledge) connection to the Prophet and the aslaf (predecessors). Shah Waliullah believed that knowledge without the Prophet was incomplete, and by including these classical texts, he aimed to enrich the Dars-e-Nizami curriculum with a profound spiritual heritage. 

It is widely acknowledged among scholars from various schools of thought that Shah Waliullah played a crucial role in the preservation and revival of Hadith transmission. His efforts ensured that the chains (asānīd) of Hadith remained intact and continued to be transmitted across generations. In fact, most—if not all—of the contemporary chains of transmission for major Hadith collections, such as Sahih al-Bukhari, Sahih Muslim, Sunan Abu Dawood, Jami’ al-Tirmidhi, Sunan al-Nasa’i, and Sunan Ibn Majah, trace back to him. He was instrumental in revitalizing and preserving Hadith transmission, making him a central figure in the continuity of Hadith scholarship. It is often attributed to Shaykh Abdul Fattah Abu Ghuddah (a great Hadith scholar of the 20th century) that if it were not for Shah Waliullah, the chains of Hadith would have died out in both the Arab and Ajam (non-Arab) lands. This statement highlights the immense impact of his efforts.

The Darul Uloom Deoband, the most prestigious Islamic seminary in India, drew heavily on the traditions and curriculum shaped by Shah Waliullah. Deoband follows the educational and methodological approach (manhaj) of Shah Waliullah more closely than the Dars-e-Nizami system. Mawlana Qasim Nanautawi, one of the founders of Darul Uloom Deoband, introduced the concept of written examinations to the curriculum, which had previously relied solely on oral exams. This addition was influenced by his exposure to the standardized educational practices he observed at Delhi College. Nanautawi’s incorporation of written assessments aimed to enhance the academic rigor and standardization of the seminary’s educational program.

Shah Waliullah incorporated his cosmological understanding into his educational reforms. He emphasized the study of metaphysics and cosmology alongside other Islamic sciences in the curriculum of his madrasa. He promoted a holistic approach to education that included spiritual training and intellectual development, ensuring that students could grasp the interconnectedness of the physical and spiritual worlds.

Socio-Political Context and Impact:

Shah Waliullah’s era marked the decline of the Mughal Empire, which faced significant challenges from regional powers such as the Marathas, Sikhs, and Jats. Economically, British colonial interests were encroaching, particularly in Bengal. Socially, there was a growing disconnect from Islamic practices introduced during earlier Mughal reigns. As India teetered on the edge of British colonization, the Mughal Empire was disintegrating, losing control, and increasingly engaging in immoral activities.

Shah Waliullah emerged during this tumultuous period, just before the full establishment of British rule and amidst the decline of the Mughal Empire. His name, Shah, reflects his literal connection to the royal establishment; he and his family were well known within the Mughal dynasty. Witnessing political instability and societal upheaval, Shah Waliullah utilized his intellectual stature and moral authority to actively engage in political discourse. He advocated for Muslim unity and the revival of Islamic governance.

Engagement with the Mughal Administration:

• Advisory Role: Despite the declining Mughal Empire, Shah Waliullah maintained close relations with the ruling class, providing guidance on state, law, and governance matters.
• Critique and Reform: He critiqued the moral and administrative failures of the Mughal rulers and sought to reform both intellectual and practical aspects of governance, ensuring adherence to principles of justice and moral integrity.

His correspondence with political leaders played a crucial role in shaping political alliances and strategies. A significant example of his political influence was his letter to Ahmad Shah Durrani, also known as Ahmad Shah Abdali, urging him to intervene in India to restore Muslim political authority. This intervention culminated in the pivotal Battle of Panipat in 1761, underscoring Shah Waliullah’s role as a political thinker and strategist dedicated to protecting Muslim communities from both external threats and internal discord.

Shah Waliullah’s Cosmological Understanding:

Shah Waliullah’s cosmological understanding was a sophisticated blend of Sufi metaphysics, rational thought, and Islamic theology. His approach emphasized the interconnectedness of all existence and the importance of integrating spiritual insights with rational inquiry. By grounding his cosmological views in the Quran and Sunnah, he provided a comprehensive framework that influenced his educational reforms and socio-political thought.

• Moral and Ethical Order: Shah Waliullah linked his cosmological views to social and political ethics. He believed that understanding the divine order of the universe could guide humans in establishing a just and moral society.
• Reformist Agenda: His cosmological insights informed his reformist agenda, advocating for a society that reflects divine principles of justice, harmony, and balance.

Key aspects of his cosmological views and approach:

Integration of Sufi Metaphysics:

• Sufi Influence: Shah Waliullah’s cosmology is heavily influenced by Sufi metaphysical concepts, particularly those of Ibn Arabi and other Sufi scholars. He believed in the interconnectedness of all existence, viewing the universe as a reflection of divine reality.
• Hierarchical Universe: He described the universe in hierarchical layers, with each level representing a different degree of proximity to the Divine. This mirrors the Sufi understanding of existence, where the material world is at the lower end of the hierarchy and the spiritual realms are closer to God.

This image is based on the explanation of the Hierarchical Universe by Shaykh Amin Kholwadia

Concept of Tajalli (Divine Manifestation):

• Divine Attributes: Shah Waliullah articulated the concept of Tajalli, where the Divine manifests through various attributes in the creation. He saw the world as a manifestation of God’s names and attributes, with each element of creation reflecting a specific aspect of the Divine.
• Unity of Being: This concept aligns with the Sufi doctrine of Wahdat al-Wujud (Unity of Being), which posits that all existence is essentially one and a manifestation of the Divine. Shah Waliullah adopted a nuanced version of this concept, emphasizing both the unity and the multiplicity of creation.

Latifas (Subtle Centers):

• Spiritual Physiology: In line with Sufi teachings, Shah Waliullah described the human being as having multiple latifas or subtle centers, which correspond to different spiritual faculties. These centers need to be purified and activated for a person to attain higher spiritual states.
• Journey of the Soul: He believed in the soul’s journey through these latifas, progressing from the physical to the spiritual, ultimately aiming to achieve union with the Divine.

Divine Knowledge and Human Intellect:

• Epistemology: Shah Waliullah emphasized the importance of both divine knowledge
  (Ilm Ladunni) and rational intellect. He believed that true understanding comes from a
  synthesis of revealed knowledge and rational inquiry.
• Illumination: He posited that human intellect is illuminated by divine knowledge,
  enabling individuals to perceive deeper truths about existence and the cosmos.

This image is based on the explanation of Islamic Epistemology by Shaykh Amin Kholwadia

Rational and Mystical Synthesis:

• Balancing Rationalism and Mysticism: Shah Waliullah’s approach was unique in its synthesis of rational thought and mystical insights. He believed that rational sciences and mystical experiences were complementary and both necessary for a comprehensive understanding of the cosmos.
• Philosophical Integration: He integrated elements of Islamic philosophy with Sufi metaphysics, arguing that the physical world and the spiritual world are interconnected and should be studied together.

Scriptural Foundations:

• Quranic Insights: Shah Waliullah grounded his cosmological views in the Quran, interpreting verses in light of both exoteric (outer) and esoteric (inner) meanings. He believed that the Quran provided profound insights into the nature of the universe and the relationship between the Creator and creation.
• Hadith Interpretations: He also drew upon Hadith literature to support his cosmological theories, using prophetic sayings to elucidate the structure and functioning of the cosmos.

Shah Waliullah’s Final Wasiyyah and His Perspective on Following One Madhhab:

During his life Shah Waliullah sought to bridge gaps between the madhahib (legal schools), particularly between the Hanafi and Shafi‘i traditions, aiming for a revival of Islam in India based on unity and shared legal insights.

However, towards the end of his life, his perspective evolved. Recognizing the challenges of merging different madhahib and the potential confusion it could create, he advised his sons—particularly Shah Abdul Aziz Dehlawi—to adhere strictly to the Hanafi madhhab. This shift highlights his realization that while cross-madhhab engagement was beneficial for scholarly discourse, practical religious adherence required consistency within a single legal framework to preserve clarity in jurisprudence and religious practice.

In his final advice to his sons, Shah Waliullah emphasized several key points:

• The Preservation of Knowledge: He urged his sons to continue the work of transmitting and teaching the Qur’an, Hadith, and rational sciences. He emphasized the importance of integrating traditional Islamic knowledge with reasoned analysis to address contemporary challenges.
• Maintain the Balance Between Shariah and Tasawwuf: He advised them to uphold the balance between Sharī‘ah (Islamic law) and Tazkiyah (spiritual purification), ensuring that religious practice was deeply rooted in both jurisprudence and inner purification. He warned against extreme legalism or excessive mysticism, urging a path of moderation.
• Continue Reforming Society: Shah Waliullah was deeply concerned with societal reform and unity among Muslims. He advised his sons to work towards purifying Islamic beliefs and practices from innovations (bid‘ah) and cultural distortions.
• Strengthen Political and Social Awareness:He recognized the decline of the Mughal Empire and the growing political instability of his time. He instructed his sons to stay aware of socio-political developments and guide rulers and scholars towards just governance and Islamic unity.
• Commit to Teaching and Writing: Shah Waliullah encouraged his sons to continue his scholarly tradition through teaching, writing, and translating works that would benefit the Muslim ummah. He particularly emphasized the importance of making Islamic sciences accessible to the common people.
• Commitment to a Single Madhhab: While Shah Waliullah had engaged with multiple madhahib and encouraged scholars to draw insights from various legal traditions, he ultimately advised Shah Abdul Aziz to follow the Hanafi madhhab exclusively. This realization likely stemmed from the understanding that ijtihad mutlaq (absolute independent legal reasoning) is zamanī (time-bound). The Imams of the four madhahib—Imam Abu Hanifa, Imam Malik, Imam Shafi‘i, and Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal—lived during a specific period designated taqdīran and takwīnan for ijtihad.¹ Consequently, their legal frameworks possessed a unique authority and preservation that, despite the brilliance of later scholars, could not be replicated.

Ijtihaad is Zamani: The Role of the Four Imams

As Shaykh Amin Kholwadia explains, the four Imams had the distinct historical and divine placement to establish enduring legal methodologies. Their era was closer to the time of Rasulullah ﷺ, allowing them to access:

The understanding of the Sahabah and Tabi‘un directly.

A linguistic, cultural, and jurisprudential proximity to the revelation that later scholars could not replicate.

While Shah Waliullah was undoubtedly a great scholar of this Ummah, he was not Abu Hanifa—nor could any scholar later in history attain the same role in legal methodology. The Imams of the four madhahib were positioned in a divinely decreed era, designated for ijtihad mutlaq (absolute ijtihad). Later scholars, including Shah Waliullah, functioned within these established frameworks rather than attempting to reconstruct them.

The Evolution of Shah Waliullah’s Thought:

Shah Waliullah’s journey—from initially advocating for a synthesis of madhahib to ultimately reaffirming adherence to a single school—demonstrates his pragmatic and evolving scholarly vision. His final wasiyyah serves as a crucial reminder that while engagement with diverse legal traditions can be intellectually enriching, practical religious adherence requires discipline within a single madhhab to ensure stability and continuity.

His son, Shah Abdul Aziz Dehlawi, upheld this guidance, becoming one of the leading scholars of his time while remaining firmly within the Hanafi tradition. This legacy reinforces the enduring wisdom of following the path laid by the four Imams, whose legal methodologies were divinely placed within the best era for ijtihad.

Legacy & Scholarly Praise for Shah Waliullah:

Shah Waliullah’s legacy extends beyond his scholarly achievements to encompass his role as a reformer and intellectual beacon in Islamic history. His efforts to revive Quranic studies by translating the Quran into Persian facilitated broader access to religious knowledge. His theological writings and metaphysical inquiries continue to inspire scholars and practitioners worldwide, emphasizing the compatibility of Islamic teachings with rational thought and spiritual insight.

Shah Waliullah’s emphasis on educational reform and ethical governance laid the groundwork for future Islamic movements and intellectual developments. His synthesis of diverse intellectual traditions and his commitment to Islamic unity resonate in contemporary discussions on Islamic theology, spirituality, and political ethics.

Shah Waliullah Dehlawi, a revered Islamic scholar, received high praise from many contemporaries and later scholars for his profound knowledge and significant contributions to Islamic thought. Here is a compilation of some notable commendations:

• Shaykh Abu Tahir al-Kurani in his ijazah (certification) described Shah Waliullah as:
  “The singular scholar, the most esteemed thinker, the master whose prowess in profound discourse is unmatched, the erudite who holds the foremost position in the fields of explanation and elaboration, inheritor of the perfections from his honorable ancestors, attaining in his youth what the aged could not.”
• Muhammad Wafadullah, another of his teachers, in his ijazah, praised him: “The righteous young man, the successful scholar, the lineage of noble saints, the elite of the eminent righteous, combining the shari’ah (Islamic law) and haqiqah (mysticism), proficient in all exalted and real sciences, adorned with the secret of his name in every portion, who is successful and correct in every endeavor, our beloved and cherished one.”
• Shah Abdul Aziz, his son, in “Bustan al-Muhaddithin,” referred to him as: “Our teacher and guide in all sciences and matters, Shaykh Waliullah al-Dehlawi.”
• Shah Rafiuddin, his other son, in “al-Takmeel,” described him as: “My father, the accomplished gnostic and the perfect erudite.”
• Muhsin al-Tahrati in “al-Yani’ al-Jani,” exalted him as: “Our Imam, our master, our proof, our exemplar, the model of the nation, the foremost of the imams, he is the interpreter, the hadith scholar, the jurist, the knower of truths and knowledge, the chief of hadith scholars, the delight of prominent jurists, the foremost of imams, the proof of the nation, proficient in sciences, excavator and decipherer of them, a gatherer of all good traits who brought joy with his virtues.”
• Abd al-Hayy al-Laknawi in “al-Ta’liq al-Mumajjad” stated: “His writings all indicate that he was one of the illustrious nobles and great scholars, blessed by God with guidance and fairness, avoiding bias and oppression, proficient in religious sciences, deeply versed in hadith discussions.”
• Sadiq Hasan Khan in “Abjad al-Ulum” referred to him as: “The eminent scholar of the time.”
• Shah Nazeer Hussain, in his ijazah to Ali Abu Wadi, mentioned him as: “The most noble, the most complete, the perfect, the remainder of the predecessors, the proof of the successors.”
• Muhammad Rashid Rida in “Al-Manar” journal lauded him: “The renewer of the twelfth century Hijri in India through his call, guidance, upbringing, teaching, and writings, and through the prominent scholars from his sons, students, and followers. He combined traditional and rational sciences, philosophy, and mysticism; as known from his famous book ‘Hujjat Allah al-Baligha,’ which he authored to explain the objectives of the Shari’ah, its wisdom, and secrets.”
• Abd al-Hayy al-Hasani in “Nuzhat al-Khawatir” described him as: “The eminent Imam, the proof of God among mankind, the leader of the imams, the exemplar of the nation, the scholar of scholars, the inheritor of prophets, the last of the mujtahids (independent jurists), the unique scholar of religion, the leader of those well-versed in carrying the burdens of the strong Shari’ah, the reviver of the Sunnah, and through whom God has bestowed great favor upon us.”
• Muhammad ‘Ata Allah Hanif al-Fujiyani in the introduction to “Ithaf al-Nabih” stated:
  “He was one of the illustrious scholars, the great scholars, proficient in religious sciences, deeply versed in hadith discussions.”
• Shaykh Al-Albani in “Ahkam al-Jana’iz” considered him among the major scholars known for their independence in understanding, deep jurisprudence from God and His Messenger, and one of the virtuous ones.

These accolades highlight Shah Waliullah’s profound influence on Islamic scholarship and his exceptional contributions to various fields of Islamic knowledge. His legacy continues to be celebrated and studied by scholars and students worldwide.

1. Taqdīran (تَقْدِيرًا) – By Divine Decree
   This refers to Allah’s predetermined plan and wisdom in deciding when and where something should occur. It signifies that the four Imams were divinely chosen to emerge in their specific era.
   Takwīnan (تَكْوِينًا) – By Divine Creation and Formation
   This refers to the way Allah brings things into existence in the natural order. It implies that the historical circumstances, the accessibility to the early generations, and the intellectual and linguistic environment were all divinely shaped to enable the Imams to perform Ijtihād Mutlaq (absolute legal reasoning).
   Context in Shah Waliullah’s Thought:
   Shah Waliullah’s realization toward the end of his life was that the era of absolute Ijtihād was divinely closed. The four Imams were placed taqdīran wa takwīnan in the best possible time for forming the legal methodologies of Islam. Later scholars, no matter how great, were not meant to reconstruct the madhāhib but to preserve and apply them.
   This understanding led him to advise his son, Shah Abdul Aziz, to adhere strictly to the Hanafi Madhhab, rather than attempting to merge different schools of thought.
   And Allah knows best.
   ↩︎